Rural teachers and schools

From the autumn of 1866, Mykhailo studied in Turka, then he spent two years studying in Rozbir.

Drohobych Gymnasium

In the fall of 1868, he began studying in the third grade of the primary school in Drohobych. Since 1870, Mykhailo Zubrytskyi studied at the Drohobych Gymnasium. In Drohobych, he met his contemporary Ivan Franko. This laid the foundation for their friendship, which lasted throughout their lives.

A letter from Ivan Franko to Shchasnyi Selskyi dated April 11, 1875, has been preserved, in which he writes: "Our Ruthenian affairs at the Drogobych Gymnasium, as usual, are very weak. Apart from three poor Ukrainians, not a single student is interested in either literary or political Ruthenian affairs. You might be interested to know who these three are - so I tell you that Matkovskyi, you probably know from the eighth grade, Zubrytskyi from the fifth, and the third is writing to you. Certainly, it is not a good testament to our Ukrainians, but what can be done?"^[4]

Evidently, not without Franko's influence, while studying at the gymnasium, he paid attention to a manuscript collection from the 18th century, which he encountered in a bourgeois house. Ivan Franko mentions this fact when publishing materials from this collection in his article "Contributions to the History of Ruthenian Literature of the 18th Century" (1886). During this time, he collected songs, carols, and folklore in his native Kindrativ and other neighboring villages (Yasinka, Rozbir), the recordings of which he passed on to Omelyan Partatskyi, Omelyan Ohonovskyi, and other Galician scholars of that time.^[5]

As recalled by Father Mykhailo in his autobiography, his father supported him only during his studies in the first and second grades (presumably, at the gymnasium). After that, he had to fend for himself. During his 9 years in Drohobych, he had to change residences 15 times. He lived very poorly, often near starvation. There were times when an old stepmother, Alexandra Durnota, a lumberjack who came to Drohobych from Opaka, and with whom Mykhailo Zubrytsky rented accommodation with breaks for three years, shared beggar's bread with him, which was donated to her near the St. Trinity Church.

Service in the army

In 1877, he was forcibly removed from his studies at the gymnasium and conscripted into the Austrian army, despite his shortsightedness and "another flaw."

He served in Sambir in the 16th company (military platoon). He spoke very negatively about the pointlessness of military service, semi-starvation existence, and the lack of basic conditions.

After the death of his brother Yakub in the winter of 1877, he became the sole provider for his elderly parents, which should have exempted him from military duty immediately. However, officials deliberately delayed the process for almost a year and only released him with the condition that he would not continue his studies at the Drogobych gymnasium but would work with his parents on the land.

Resuming studies at the Drogobych gymnasium

Independently studied the curriculum of the 7th grade from books and in the autumn of 1878 passed the entrance exam and entered the 8th grade of the Drogobych gymnasium.

On July 13, 1879, he passed the "maturity exam" with almost the highest marks (almost with a gold medal by modern standards).

Seminary

He intended to study at the Faculty of Philosophy of Lviv University. However, he decided to enroll in the Theological Faculty of Lviv University.^[6]

He studied at the Lviv (1879–1883) and Peremyshl theological seminaries. There, he became interested in scientific activities and wrote his first research on serfdom in the 13th century. He later married Olha Borysevych, the granddaughter of a priest from the village of Mshanets near Staryi Sambir, and eventually became a priest in Mshanets. From then on, he spent almost his entire life in Mshanets, which did not hinder but rather helped him become a unique historian of local life.^[6]

Before coming to the village of Mshanets in 1883, he taught for a year at the Diak Institute in Peremyshl.^[7]

Enlightenment and educational activities (the "Reader's Revolution")

Father Zubrytskyi was particularly active in promoting enlightenment among the local population. Thanks to him, a "reader's revolution" took place in the village: the priest taught the peasants to read and instilled in them an interest in reading. This led to the fact that no other village in Galicia produced as much secular intelligentsia as Mshanets.

With his direct involvement, reading rooms of "Prosvita" were founded and operated in Mshanets (February 28, 1892^[8][9][10]), Hrozova (April 2, 1893^[11]), Mykhnovets (April 11, 1893^[12]), Lavriv (1894^[13]), Limna (July 26, 1901^[14]), Holovetsko (1902^[15]), and Lypia (1902^[16]).

He was heavily involved in educational affairs, striving constantly to improve the level of knowledge and particularly the study of the Ukrainian language. He vehemently protested against the celebration of Polish national and religious holidays, the low professional training of teachers, and the assimilationist behavior of the conquerors. He demanded an increase in state funding for schools.

He criticized the "stuffing" of Ukrainian children's heads with useless Polish "stories about Krakus, Wanda, Kazimierz, and Esterne, about Barbara Radziwiłł, etc." He called for the school curriculum to broaden the peasants' view of nature, to instill in them a sense of dignity, to not bow down to the "higher" classes, and for schools to teach young people to seek a way of life through independent work.^[17] He promoted the children's magazine "Dzvinok" among parents and educators, pointing out that it was better to subscribe children to this magazine than to buy them various toys and other trifles.^[5] He reported on the publication of works on the history of Ukraine for mass reading. He even considered the choice of names for children not a trivial matter, but an integral part of a conscious attitude towards Ukrainian traditionalism and patriotism.^[18]

He meticulously investigated the status of the Ukrainian clergy in the past and analyzed the current situation. Through various means, he endeavored to instill in his fellow priests a sense of duty and a proper understanding of the need for their everyday work with people, education, especially in children of school age, fostering not only awareness of national unity but also personal responsibility for the fate of all Ukrainians. He left behind many significant scholarly and journalistic works that attest to Father Zubrytsky's substantial contribution to transforming the Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church into a powerful bastion of the Nation and a fighter for the restoration of its conciliarity and independence.^{[19][20][21][22][23]}

For nerly 10 years (1896–1905), the Tsounty Shul Tsuncil intentionally did not send a teacher to Mshanets "out of spite towards the Priest."^[2]

Pastoral activities

In 1901, he wrote about himself: "I am a priest and fulfill my duties from inner conviction."^[24]

When he arrived in the village, he encountered the situation where among the parishioners "Christian concepts were mixed with pagan ones, and ... the latter prevailed."

When he came to the parish, only the deacon used to sing in the church, while everyone else remained silent. By 1896, during church services, everyone was already singing.

He began catechesis, read daily prayers aloud in the church, taught catechism and the Bible. After Vespers, young people would come for plebaniya, where they sang church hymns and gradually learned to read using movable type. In order for the youth to better understand the Bible, he purchased "Biblical History in 40 Pictures" from Freiburg, Switzerland, and after telling a certain story, he would explain it again using the pictures.

Since religious education was neglected due to the anti-Ukrainian position of the District School Board, Father Mykhailo gathered school-aged children every Sunday evening during the fall and winter for a one-and-a-half-hour religious lecture.^[2]

Oleg Pavlyshyn uncovered much information about the visible results of Father Zubrytsky's pastoral work by analyzing the report of the dean's visitation by Father Volodymyr Levytskyi on October 20, 1904. The protocol indicates that regular services, Sunday sermons, catechism classes, and visits to the seriously ill by the priest were common. By the way, the priest regularly visited his parishioners before the Feast of Epiphany and Easter ("Resurrection").

"A number of questions concern the behavior of parishioners: whether they made their Easter confession, refrained from work on Sundays and holidays, and participated in night watches near the church. The protocol states that sobriety among the villagers is at a high level..."

"...it is noted that all metric books and parish records are kept locked in a cabinet. There is also a list of all the records. The visitor remarked that the metric books are well-maintained, with entries made in the presence of witnesses. There is an active parish library."

Assessing the state of the parish buildings in Mshanets, the visitor noted that the priest's residence (plebaniya), where the priest lived with his family, is in need of repairs. Conversely, the utility buildings are in good condition. The dean also acknowledged the priest's efforts to begin construction of a new church, the good condition of the church accessories, and the high level of youth knowledge in "catechetical science."

The visitation protocol concludes with informal remarks from the dean: "The honorable Father Mykhailo Zubrytsky faithfully fulfills his pastoral duties."

Protection of Ukrainian (Ruthenian) language

He defended the rights of the Ukrainian language in education, socio-political, and cultural life. Until the end of his life, he consistently opposed cases of neglect of the Ukrainian language by chauvinistic officials in government institutions, postal workers, and others.^[5]

He actively opposed the Polonization of place names.^[25]

He advocated for the official status of the Ukrainian language as early as the late 19th century, advocating for its introduction into all aspects of public life. He reached out to highly educated professionals, trying to persuade them to expedite the development of a perfect orthography. He expressed his desire to see it built on a phonetic principle.^[5]

Human rights and publicist activities

Fr. Mykhailo Zubrytsky consistently defended the dignity of his parishioners. He saw the results of the Austrian occupation regime better than many politicians and officials, and he knew perfectly well numerous ways and forms of covert and overt violations of those not particularly broad rights promised in the legislation of the imperial government.^[5]

Father systematically spoke out in the press and at various gatherings criticizing government policies at the center and their implementation in the regions. More than half of his printed legacy is dedicated to exposing the real state in which the Carpathian Ukrainians found themselves. He often highlighted the living conditions of Ukrainians in other regions, which were sometimes even worse.

He was outraged by the practice of privileged treatment of certain peoples in the Habsburg Empire, the exploitation of Galician peasantry by industrially developed parts of Austria, restrictions on the national consciousness work of Ukrainians, discrimination against native teachers, predatory deforestation, the impunity of landlords and officials, tax manipulations, misrepresentation of the national composition of the population and its representation in county councils, police surveillance of the intelligentsia, illegal extortion, harsh conscription, the existence of forced begging, and so on.^[5]

Economic development

In his numerous journalistic works, he often addressed the issues of economic and political discrimination against Ruthenians. He consistently persuaded the intelligentsia that they should work with the people, bringing them "the light of truth and knowledge in their native Ruthenians attire."^[5]

He supported the Galician organization "Rural Farmer," founded in 1899, and defended its members against various attacks and discrimination. He promoted the cooperative movement, especially the establishment of rural cooperative stores, which significantly reduced the economic exploitation of peasants by innkeepers, speculators, and usurers.^{[26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34][35]}

On April 4, 1892, he founded the "Spilkova Kramnytsya" (Ruthenian Store) in Mshanets, affiliated with the "Prosvita" reading room, initially owned by 10 local peasants, later by 16. In such stores, farmers could purchase essential goods at fair prices. He dedicated a series of press releases to this issue.

He understood the serfdom imposed by the invaders and forcibly imposed on Ukrainian peasants as one of the forms of colonial oppression.^[5]

Scientific activity

The multifaceted complex of issues was covered by his historical and archaeological works "The Village of Kyndrativ (Turka povit)" and "The Village of Mshanets in the Starosambir povit." In fact, they are a kind of collection of documentary sources about these Boyko villages. He often incorporated such materials into his newspaper correspondences related to current affairs.

A certain culmination of Father Mykhailo's national and state views is his journalistic work "It is not the time for Moscovites and Poles to serve" ("Svoboda", 1912). He not only borrowed the title from Ivan Franko but also showed complete agreement with his political ideas expressed in the poetic works "It is not the time" and "The Serf".^[5] In an outspoken and sharp journalistic form, he depicts what happened during the rule of Poland and Russia in Ukraine (specifically asserting that during the founding of Saint Petersburg, 20,000 Ukrainian Cossacks perished).^[5]

The material about Poland's annexation of Galicia and other regions of Ukraine was so truthful and sharp that the censorship confiscated it and did not allow its publication.

The establishment of Austrian rule in Galicia, its policy towards the indigenous population, the utilization of the Polish social elite, and other chauvinistic groups to maintain and strengthen the dominance of the conquerors are interpreted entirely from the standpoint of Ukrainian national interests.

His political and journalistic interventions in the press comprehensively portray the true picture of life and the struggle of the occupied Ukrainian people.

A unique monument dedicated to the formation and initial steps of the government structures of the West Ukrainian People's Republic (ZUNR) in Lisko, Przemyśl, Ustrzyki, and their surroundings, is his chronicle of events covering a short period from November 6 to December 21, 1918.

Ivan Franko called Father Mykhailo Zubrytskyi a "distinguished Ukrainian historian and ethnographer," "a good connoisseur of the Western mountainous Boykivshchyna," and "a distinguished researcher of peasant life," always speaking of his works with praise, appreciating them for their rich factual basis, documentary accuracy, and research integrity. Franko utilized ethnographic and folkloric materials collected by Father M. Zubrytskyi in his scholarly and literary works, always acknowledging them in the prefaces, footnotes, or references of his works.^[5][36]

He also maintained good relations with the ethnographer and literary scholar Volodymyr Hnatiuk.

On July 20, 1904, he became a full member of the Shevchenko Scientific Society.

In the spring of 1913, Mykhailo Zubrytskyi purchased 78 items in the Boyko region, including tools for processing flax, hemp, and weaving fabric, and donated them to the Museum of the Shevchenko Scientific Society in Lviv ("Chronicle of the Shevchenko Scientific Society" part 55).^[37]

The Bookstore of the Shevchenko Scientific Society in Lviv advertised books available in its inventory in the pages of the Notes of the Shevchenko Scientific Society. In 1912, they were selling 5 books by Father Zubrytskyi:^[38]

• The village of Mshanets, in the Starosambir povit, costs 3 crowns;
• A large family in Mshanets, Starosambir povit - 0.10 crowns;
• Tobacco smuggling in the mountains of Galicia in the 19th century - 0.60 crowns;
• Contributions to the history of conscription in Galicia - 0.20 crowns;
• Years of famine. Contributions to the history of Galicia 1846-1861 - 0.20 crowns.

Political activity

He skillfully used examples of national liberation movements in other countries for political awareness among his fellow countrymen, both near and far. He effectively ridiculed the absurdity of the "evidence" presented by Polish annexationists regarding their "right" to rule over Ukrainian lands.^[39]

He actively participated in political processes in the Boyko regions, utilizing various opportunities of his time to engage intellectuals and peasants in organized political struggle. He repeatedly ran for elections, standing as a candidate for local county councils and the Galician Sejm. He left behind many (mostly anonymous) journalistic works about the course of the electoral process.

Throughout his life, he resolutely, consistently, and tirelessly fought against Moscophilia, demonstrating the absurdity of their political postulates and actions: "The development of the Ruthenian people, its uplift, will not come from the north or the west, but will be accomplished by the efforts of the Ruthenians themselves."

He closely observed the work of the Ukrainian Radical Party, but its orientation towards Marxism was unacceptable to him. He strongly condemned the apostasy of Moscophils. He considered himself and his like-minded individuals as ukrainophile with full confidence, and in March 1901 openly declared that he and his associates were nationalists.^[40]

He spared no effort to promote the popular assembly movement in Western Boykivshchyna, despite the resistance from the pro-Austrian and Polish bureaucracy, which either refused permits for assemblies or sought the slightest pretext to prohibit them.^{[41][42][43][44][45]}

Anti-alcohol campaign

He fought against drunkenness by all means, exposing the harmfulness of drinking and alcoholism, and popularizing organized resistance against the owners of the monopoly right to produce and sell alcoholic beverages ("propinators").^{[46][47][48][49]}

Father Zubrytsky's first act surprisingly was to ban the church Nativity scene (vertep), after rewriting all the carols. The reason was the drunkenness of the participants. His second step was to prohibit inviting 15-20 godparents to baptisms, allowing only two to four. The next move was to forbid treating the midwives with horilka, etc.

In addition to prohibitions, the priest actively worked to create alternatives for the people. He opened the first "Prosvata" (educational and cultural center) in Mshanets in 1892, as detailed in the sections "Educational Activities" and "Pastoral Activities".

In 1894, Zubrytsky noted that people had stopped selling their fields (on the contrary, those who had the means tried to buy more), ceased going caroling and visiting each other as before, limited the number of godparents to only 2-4 (previously, they would bring up to twenty and, apparently, everyone was treated to horilka), and during meals, weddings, and funerals, only half as much vodka was consumed as before.^[50]

Anti-usury campaign

He resisted the spread of usury in the villages.

The most effective measure was the establishment of a "for cash" store at the reading room of the "Prosvita" society. Unlike the Jews, who traded illegally and did not pay taxes, all the goods in the store were licensed (then called "obtaining traffic" for the sale of certain types of goods). This was very difficult due to bureaucratic obstacles.