Tai Tham script (Tham meaning "scripture") is an abugida writing system used mainly for a group of Southwestern Tai languages i.e., Northern Thai, Tai Lü, Khün and Lao; as well as the liturgical languages of Buddhism i.e., Pali and Sanskrit. It is historically known as Tua Tham (ᨲ᩠ᩅᩫᨵᨾ᩠ᨾ᩼​ or ᨲ᩠ᩅᩫᨵᩢᨾ᩠ᨾ᩼). In Thailand and Myanmar, the script is often referred to as Lanna script (Thai: อักษรธรรมล้านนา RTGS: Akson Tham Lan Na; Burmese: လန်နအက္ခရာ RTGS: Lanna Akara) in relation to the historical kingdom of Lan Na situating in the Northern region of modern day Thailand and a part of Shan state in Myanmar.^[4] Local people in Northern Thailand also call the script as Tua Mueang (ᨲ᩠ᩅᩫᨾᩮᩥᩬᨦ, Northern Thai pronunciation: [tǔa̯.mɯ̄a̯ŋ] listen^ⓘ) in parallel to Kam Mueang, a local name for Northern Thai language.^[4] In Laos and Isan region of Thailand, a variation of Tai Tham script, often dubbed Lao Tham, is also known by the locals as To Tham Lao (Northeastern Thai: โตธรรมลาว /toː˩.tʰam˧˥.laːw˧/, cf. Lao: ໂຕທຳ/ໂຕທັມ BGN/PCGN to tham) or Yuan script.^[5] Tai Tham script is traditionally written on a dried palm leaf as a palm-leaf manuscript.^[4]

Quick Facts Tai Tham ᨲ᩠ᩅᩫᨵᩢᨾ᩠ᨾ᩼, Tua Tham, Script type ...

Tai Tham ᨲ᩠ᩅᩫᨵᩢᨾ᩠ᨾ᩼, Tua Tham
Script type	Abugida
Time period	c. 1300–present
Direction	Left-to-right
Languages	Northern Thai, Tai Lü, Khün, Isan and Lao
Related scripts
Parent systems	Proto-Sinaitic alphabet[a] Phoenician alphabet[a] Aramaic alphabet[a] Brāhmī Tamil-Brahmi Pallava alphabet[1] Old Mon script[1][2][3] Tai Tham
Child systems	New Tai Lue, Tham Lao
ISO 15924
ISO 15924	Lana (351), ​Tai Tham (Lanna)
Unicode
Unicode alias	Tai Tham
Unicode range	U+1A20–U+1AAF
[a] The Semitic origin of the Brahmic scripts is not universally agreed upon.
This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

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The Northern Thai language is a close relative of (standard) Thai. It is spoken by nearly 6 million people in Northern Thailand and several thousand in Laos of whom few are literate in Lanna script. The script is still read by older monks. Northern Thai has six linguistic tones and Thai only five, making transcription into the Thai alphabet problematic. There is some resurgent interest in the script among younger people, but an added complication is that the modern spoken form, called Kam Muang, differs in pronunciation from the older form.^[6]

There are 670,000 speakers of Tai Lü, some of those born before 1950 are literate in Tham, also known as Old Tai Lue.^{[citation needed]} The script has also continued to be taught in the monasteries. The New Tai Lue script is derived from Tham. There are 120,000 speakers of Khün for which Lanna is the only script.

This article contains Lanna text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Tai Tham script.

The Tai Tham script shows a strong similarity to the Mon script used by the Mon kingdom of Haripunjaya around the 13th century CE, in the present-day Lamphun Province of Northern Thailand. The oldest known document containing the Tai Tham script is dated to 1376 CE and was found in Sukhothai. The document is a bilingual inscription on a gold folio, containing one line of Pali written in the Tai Tham script, while the vernacular is written in the Siamese language, using the Sukhothai script. The Tai Tham script was adapted to write vernacular languages not later than the 15th century CE, most probably in Chiang Mai, in the Lan Na Kingdom.^[7] The script spread from Lan Na to surrounding areas such as modern day Laos, Isan, Shan State and Sipsong Panna. Numerous local variants developed, such as the Lue variant (Sipsong Panna), the Khuen variant (Shan State) and the Tham Lao variant (Laos and Isan). The variants differ only slightly in appearance, and the system of writing has remained the same.^[8] As the name suggests, the use of the Tham (Dharma) script in Lao was restricted to religious literature, either used to transcribe Pali, or religious treatises written in Lao intended solely for the clergy. Religious instructional materials and prayer books dedicated to the laity were written in Tai Noi instead. As a result, only a few people outside the temples were literate in the script. In Isan, evidence of the script includes two stone inscriptions, such as the one housed at Wat Tham Suwannakhuha in Nong Bua Lamphu, dated to 1564, and another from Wat Mahaphon in Maha Sarakham from the same period.^[9]

Most of the script is recorded on palm-leaf manuscripts, many of which were destroyed during the 'Thaification' purges of the 1930s; contemporaneously this period of Thai nationalisation also ended its use as the primary written language in Northern Thailand.^[10] Although no longer in use in Isan, the alphabet is enjoying a resurgence in Northern Thailand, and is still used as the primary written script for the Tai Lü and Tai Khün languages spoken in the 'Golden Triangle' where Thailand, Laos, Burma and southern China meet. Its use is rather limited to the long-term monks in Laos and most materials published today are in the modern Lao script.^[10]

Although both the ancient forms of the Mon and Khmer script are different, they are both abugidas that descend from the Brahmic scripts introduced via contacts with South Indian traders, soldiers, merchants and Brahmans. As a Mon-derived script, Tai Tham has many similarities with the writing systems for Burmese, Shan, Rakhine and modern Mon and rounder letter forms compared to the angled letters of Khmer.^[10] Letters can be stacked, sometimes with special subscript forms, similar to 'ຼ' which was used in Tai Noi and also in modern Lao as the subscript version of 'ຣ' /r/ or 'ລ' /l/ as in Lao: ຫຼວງພຼະບາງ/ຫລວງພຣະບາງ. Letters also are more circular or rounded than the typically angled style of Khmer.^[9]

There are 43 Tai Tham consonants. They are divided into three groups: categorized consonants (ᨻ᩠ᨿᩢᨬ᩠ᨩᨶᨶᩲᩅᩢᨣ᩠ᨣ᩼, payanjana nai wak), non-categorized consonants (ᨻ᩠ᨿᩢᨬ᩠ᨩᨶᩋᩅᩢᨣ᩠ᨣ᩼, payanjana awak), and additional consonants (ᨻ᩠ᨿᩢᨬ᩠ᨩᨶᨲᩮᩬᩥ᩵ᨾ, payanjana tueam). Categorized consonants and non-categorized consonants are those derived from Old Mon script used for Pali and Sanskrit languages. Similar to Devanagari, Pallava script, and Burmese script, categorized consonants are divided into 5 subgroups called wak (ᩅᩢᨣ᩠ᨣ᩼) i.e., wak ka (ᨠ), wak ja (ᨧ), wak rata (ᨭ), wak ta (ᨲ), and wak pa (ᨷ). The additional consonants are the consonants invented to write Tai sounds that are originally not found in Pali. In a dictionary, letter ᩂ​ and ᩄ are often put in the consonant list following the letter ᩁ and ᩃ respectively. However, they are a syllabary (also a vowel) and not a consonant letter.

Consonant chart

There are 25 categorized consonants, 10 non-categorized consonants, and 8 additional consonants. Similar to Khmer, Tai Tham also has a subjoined form called haang (ᩉᩣ᩠ᨦ), tua joeng (ᨲ᩠ᩅᩫᨩᩮᩥ᩠ᨦ), or tua hoy (ᨲ᩠ᩅᩫᩉᩬ᩠ᨿ᩶). In the Unicode input method, sakot sign (U1A60) (◌᩠) is used to trigger the subjoined forms.^[5][11] The additional consonants are shown in yellow. These consonants have the characteristics of lacking the subjoined form. Similar to Thai script and Lao script, consonants in Tai Tham can be classified into high, mid, and low classes regarding to the tone rules.

More information Letter, Subjoined form ...

	Letter		Subjoined form	Name		Transliteration		IPA		Tone Class
				Translit.	IPA	Initial	Final	Initial	Final
1. Wak Ka	ᨠ		◌᩠ᨠ	ka	[kǎ]	k	k	[k]	[k̚]	high
	ᨡ		◌᩠ᨡ	xa, kha	[xǎ], [kʰǎ]	x, kh	k	[x], [kʰ]	[k̚]	high
	ᨢ[lower-alpha 1]		—	xa, kha	[xǎ]	x, kh	—	[x]	[k̚]	high
	ᨣ		◌᩠ᨣ	ka	[ka᷇]	k	k	[k]	[k̚]	low
	ᨤ[lower-alpha 1]		—	xa, kha	[xa᷇]	x, kh	—	[x]	[k̚]	low
	ᨥ		◌᩠ᨥ	xa, kha	[xa᷇], [kʰa᷇]	x, kh	k	[x], [kʰ]	[k̚]	low
	ᨦ		◌᩠ᨦ	nga	[ŋa᷇]	ng	ng	[ŋ]	[ŋ]	low
2. Wak Ja	ᨧ		◌᩠ᨧ	ja, ca	[t͡ɕǎ]	j, c	t	[t͡ɕ]	[t̚]	high
	ᨨ		◌᩠ᨨ	sa, cha	[sǎ], [t͡ɕʰǎ]	s, ch	—	[s], [t͡ɕʰ]	—	high
	ᨩ		◌᩠ᨩ	ja, ca	[t͡ɕa᷇]	j, c	t	[t͡ɕ]	[t̚]	low
	ᨪ[lower-alpha 1]		—	sa	[sa᷇]	s	t	[s]	[t̚]	low
	ᨫ	,	◌᩠ᨫ	sa, cha	[sa᷇], [t͡ɕʰa᷄]	s, ch	t	[s], [t͡ɕʰa᷄]	[t̚]	low
	ᨬ		◌᩠ᨬ	nya	[ɲa᷇]	ny, y	n	[ɲ], [j][lower-alpha 2]	[n]	low
3. Wak Rata	ᨭ		◌᩠ᨭ	rata	[lǎ.tǎ]	t	t	[t]	[t̚]	high
	ᨮ	,	◌᩠ᨮ , ◌ᩛ	ratha	[lǎ.tʰǎ]	th	t	[tʰ]	[t̚]	high
	ᨯ		◌᩠ᨯ	da	[dǎ]	d, th[lower-alpha 3]	t	[d], [tʰ][lower-alpha 3]	[t̚]	mid
	ᨰ		◌᩠ᨰ	ratha	[lǎ.tʰa᷇]	th	t	[tʰ]	[t̚]	low
	ᨱ		◌᩠ᨱ	rana	[lǎ.na᷇]	n	n	[n]	[n]	low
4. Wak Ta	ᨲ		◌᩠ᨲ	ta	[tǎ]	t	t	[t]	[t̚]	high
	ᨳ		◌᩠ᨳ	tha	[tʰǎ]	th	t	[tʰ]	[t̚]	high
	ᨴ		◌᩠ᨴ	ta	[ta᷇]	t	t	[t]	[t̚]	low
	ᨵ		◌᩠ᨵ	tha	[tʰa᷇]	th	t	[tʰ]	[t̚]	low
	ᨶ		◌᩠ᨶ	na	[na᷇]	n	n	[n]	[n]	low
5. Wak Pa	ᨷ		◌᩠ᨷ , ◌ᩝ	ba	[bǎ]	b	p	[b][lower-alpha 4]	[p̚]	mid
			◌᩠ᨷ	pa[lower-alpha 5]	[pǎ]	p	p	[p][lower-alpha 5][12][13]	[p̚]	high[13][12]
	ᨸ[lower-alpha 1][lower-alpha 6]		–	pa	[pǎ]	p	p	[p]	[p̚]	high
	ᨹ		◌᩠ᨹ	pha	[pʰǎ]	ph	–	[pʰ]	–	high
	ᨺ[lower-alpha 1]		–	fa	[fǎ]	f	–	[f]	–	high
	ᨻ		◌᩠ᨻ , ◌ᩛ	pa	[pa᷇]	p	p	[p]	[p̚]	low
	ᨼ[lower-alpha 1]		–	fa	[fa᷇]	f	p	[f]	[p̚]	low
	ᨽ		◌᩠ᨽ	pha	[pʰa᷇]	ph	p	[pʰ]	[p̚]	low
	ᨾ		◌᩠ᨾ , ◌ᩜ	ma	[ma᷇]	m	m	[m]	[m]	low
6. Awak	ᨿ		◌᩠ᨿ	nya	[ɲa᷇]	ny, y	–	[ɲ], [j][lower-alpha 2]	–	low
	ᩀ[lower-alpha 1]		–	ya	[jǎ]	y	–	[j]	–	mid
	ᩁ		◌᩠ᩁ , ᩕ	ra, la	[la᷇]	r,[lower-alpha 7] l, h	n	[r],[lower-alpha 3] [l],[lower-alpha 3] [h]	[n]	low
	ᩃ		◌᩠ᩃ , ◌ᩖ	la	[la᷇]	l	n	[l]	[n]	low
	ᩅ		◌᩠ᩅ	wa	[wa᷇]	w	–	[w]	–	low
	ᩆ		◌᩠ᩆ	sa	[sǎ]	s	t	[s]	[t̚]	high
	ᩇ		◌᩠ᩇ	sa	[sǎ]	s	t	[s]	[t̚]	high
	ᩈ		◌᩠ᩈ , ◌ᩞ	sa	[sǎ]	s	t	[s]	[t̚]	high
	ᩉ		◌᩠ᩉ	ha	[hǎ]	h	–	[h]	–	high
	ᩊ		◌᩠ᩊ	la	[la᷇]	l	n	[l]	[n]	low
	ᩋ	,	◌ᩬ	a	[ʔǎ]	–	–	[ʔ]	–	mid
	ᩌ[lower-alpha 1]		–	ha	[ha᷇]	h	–	[h]	–	low

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Notes

1. Added consonant invented for Tai sound, as an extension to the original chategorized Pali 'vagga' consonants. These consonants have the characteristics of lacking the subjoined form.
2. In Tai Lue language
3. Influence from Thai, Pali, and Sanskrit languages.
4. When used to write Tai words.
5. When used to write Pali-Sanskrit derived words.
6. Used only for Tai words, not for Pali.
7. Often transliterated as 'r' to preserve the semantics for Thai and Pali-Sanskrit words.

Consonant combinations and ligatures

Consonant digraph with Ha

Certain consonants in the low-class group lack their high-class counterpart. These consonants are sometimes called the single low-class consonants. Their high-class counterparts are created by the combination with letter high Ha (ᩉ) as a digraph, called Ha Nam (ᩉ ᨶᩣᩴ).^[14]

More information Letter, Name ...

Letter	Name		Transliteration		IPA		Tone Class
	Translit.	IPA	Initial	Final	Initial	Final
ᩉ᩠ᨦ	nga	[ŋǎ]	ng	–	[ŋ]	–	high
ᩉ᩠ᨶ	na	[nǎ]	n	–	[n]	–	high
ᩉ᩠ᨾ	ma	[mǎ]	m	–	[m]	–	high
ᩉ᩠ᨿ	nya	[ɲǎ]	ny	–	[ɲ], [j][lower-alpha 1]	–	high
ᩉᩕ	ra, la, ha	[rǎ], [lǎ], [hǎ]	r,[lower-alpha 2] l, h	–	[r],[lower-alpha 3] [l],[lower-alpha 3] [h]	–	high
ᩉᩖ​, ᩉ᩠ᩃ	la	[lǎ]	l	–	[l]	–	high
ᩉ᩠ᩅ	wa	[wǎ]	w	–	[w]	–	high

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Notes

1. In Tai Lue language
2. Often transliterated as 'r' to preserve the semantics for Thai and Pali-Sanskrit words.
3. Influence from Thai, Pali, and Sanskrit languages.

Special letters

More information Letter, Name ...

Letter		Name			Phonetic value (IPA)	Comments
		Tham	Translit.	IPA
ᩓ	, [lower-alpha 1]	ᩃᩯᩡ, ᩃᩯ	lae	[lɛ̄ː]	[lɛʔ], [lɛ̄ː]	Ligature of letter ᩃ (la) and superscript vowel sign ᩮ (e).
ᨶᩣ		ᨶᩣ	naa	[nāː]	[nāː]	Ligature of letter ᨶ (na) and vowel sign ᩣ (a).
ᨬ᩠ᨬ		ᨬᨬ	nya nya	[ɲa᷇ʔ ɲa᷇ʔ]	[n.ɲ]	Ligature of letter ᨱ (rana) and ᨬ (nya), used in lieu of double ᨬ.
ᩔ		ᩈ​​​ ᩈᩬᨦᩉᩬ᩶ᨦ	sa song hong	[sǎː sɔ̌ːŋ hɔ᷇ːŋ]	[t̚.s], [s̚.s]	Ligature of double ᩈ (high sa).
ᩕ		ᩁᩁᩰᩫ᩠ᨦ	rarong, rahong	[la᷇.hōːŋ]	[r], [l], [ʰ]	Subjoined form of letter ᩁ (ra) for a consonant cluster such as ᨷᩕ (pra) ᨻᩕ (pra) as opposed to the subjoined form -᩠ᩁ used as a final consonant. Traditionally considered as a special letter.

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Notes

1. Khuen/Lue style.

Vowel characters come in two forms: as stand-alone letters for writing initial vowels or as diacritics that can be attached to all sides of the consonant letters. However, Lanna excels in terms of the number of diacritics used. Some vowel sounds can be written with a combination of as many as four diacritics: one on each side of the consonant.^[15][16]

Independent vowels

Independent vowels are mainly reserved for writing Pali words, except for ᩐᩣ /ʔau/ which is used as a special vowel sign and not for Pali words.^[18]

More information IPA ...

Tai Tham
	ᩋ	ᩋᩣ	ᩍ	ᩎ	ᩏ	ᩐ	ᩑ	ᩒ	ᩐᩣ
IPA	/ʔáʔ/	/ʔāː/	/ʔíʔ/	/ʔīː/	/ʔúʔ/	/ʔūː/	/ʔēː/	/ʔōː/	/ʔau/

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Lanna has two sets of numerals. The first set, Lek Nai Tham, is reserved for liturgical purposes. The other set, Lek Hora, is used in everyday life.^[30]

Tai Tham is very similar in shape to Burmese script since both are derived from Old Mon script. New Tai Lue is a descendant of Tai Tham with its shape simplified and many consonants removed. Thai script looks distinctive from Tai Tham but covers all equivalent consonants including 8 additional consonants, as Thai is the closest sister language to the Northern Thai, Khuen, and Lue languages. A variation of Thai script (Sukhothai script) called Fakkham script was also used in Lan Na to write Northern Thai, Khuen, and Lue during the 14th century, influencing the development of the modern Tai Tham script.^[31][4]

More information Burmese, New Tai Lue ...

	Tai Tham		Burmese	New Tai Lue	Khmer	Thai	Lao
	Unicode	Lanna style
1. Wak Ka	ᨠ		က	ᦂ	ក	ก	ກ
	ᨡ		ခ	ᦃ	ខ	ข	ຂ
	ᨢ		–	–	–	ฃ	–
	ᨣ		ဂ	ᦅ	គ	ค	ຄ
	ᨤ		–	ᦆ	–	ฅ	–
	ᨥ		ဃ	–	ឃ	ฆ	(modern: ຄ)
	ᨦ		င	ᦇ	ង	ง	ງ
2. Wak Ja	ᨧ		စ	ᦈ	ច	จ	ຈ
	ᨨ		ဆ	–	ឆ	ฉ	(modern: ສ)
	ᨩ		ဇ	ᦋ	ជ	ช	ຊ
	ᨪ		–	ᦌ	–	ซ	–
	ᨫ		ဈ	–	ឈ	ฌ	(modern: ຊ)
	ᨬ		ည	–	ញ	ญ	(modern: ຍ)
3. Wak Rata	ᨭ		ဋ	–	ដ	ฏ	(modern: ຕ)
	ᨮ		ဌ	–	ឋ	ฐ	(modern: ຖ)
	ᨯ		ဍ	ᦡ	ឌ	ฑ, ฎ, ด	(modern: ທ, ດ)
	ᨰ		ဎ	–	ឍ	ฒ	(modern: ທ)
	ᨱ		ဏ	–	ណ	ณ	(modern: ນ)
4. Wak Ta	ᨲ		တ	ᦎ	ត	ต	ຕ
	ᨳ		ထ	ᦏ	ថ	ถ	ຖ
	ᨴ		ဒ	ᦑ	ទ	ท	ທ
	ᨵ		ဓ	ᦒ	ធ	ธ	(modern: ທ)
	ᨶ		န	ᦓ	ន	น	ນ
5. Wak Pa	ᨷ		ပ	ᦢ	ប	บ	ບ
	ᨸ		–	ᦔ	–	ป	ປ
	ᨹ		ဖ	ᦕ	ផ	ผ	ຜ
	ᨺ		–	ᦚ	–	ฝ	ຝ
	ᨻ		ဗ	ᦗ	ព	พ	ພ
	ᨼ		–	ᦝ	–	ฟ	ຟ
	ᨽ		ဘ	ᦘ	ភ	ภ	(modern: ພ)
	ᨾ		မ	ᦙ	ម	ม	ມ
6. Awak	ᨿ		ယ	ᦍ	យ	ย	ຍ
	ᩀ		–	ᦊ	–	อย	ຢ
	ᩁ		ရ	ᦣ	រ	ร	ຣ (modern: ລ)
	ᩃ		လ	ᦟ	ល	ล	ລ
	ᩅ		ဝ	ᦞ	វ	ว	ວ
	ᩆ		ၐ (modern: သ)	–	ឝ (modern: ស)	ศ	(modern: ສ)
	ᩇ		ၑ (modern: သ)	–	ឞ (modern: ស)	ษ	(modern: ສ)
	ᩈ		သ	ᦉ	ស	ส	ສ
	ᩉ		ဟ	ᦠ	ហ	ห	ຫ
	ᩊ		ဠ	–	ឡ	ฬ	(modern: ລ)
	ᩋ		အ	ᦀ	អ	อ	ອ
	ᩌ		–	–	–	ฮ	ຮ
7. Special	ᩂ		ၒ	–	ឫ	ฤ	–
	ᩄ		ၔ	–	ឭ	ฦ	–

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The Tai Tham script (like all Indic scripts) uses a number of modifications to write Pali and related languages (in particular, Sanskrit). When writing Pali, only 33 consonants and 12 vowels are used.

Pali consonants in Tai Tham script

More information Plosive, Nasal ...

	Plosive				Nasal	Approximant		Fricative
	voiceless		voiced
	unaspirated	aspirated	unaspirated	aspirated		central	lateral
Velar	[ka]	[kha]	[ga]	[gha]	[ṅa]
Palatal	[ca]	[cha]	[ja]	[jha]	[ña]	[ya]
Retroflex	[ṭa]	[ṭha]	[ḍa]	[ḍha]	[ṇa]	[ra]	[ḷa]
Dental	[ta]	[tha]	[da]	[dha]	[na]		[la]	[sa]
Labial	[pa]	[pha]	[ba]	[bha]	[ma]	[va]
Glottal								[ha]

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Sanskrit consonants in Tai Tham script

More information Plosive, Nasal ...

	Plosive				Nasal	Approximant	Frictive
	voiceless		voiced		voiced	voiced	voiceless
	unaspirated	aspirated	unaspirated	aspirated	unaspirated	unaspirated	aspirated
Guttural	[ka]	[kha]	[ga]	[gha]	[ṅa]	[ha]
Palatal	[ca]	[cha]	[ja]	[jha]	[ña]	[ya]	[śa]
Retroflex	[ṭa]	[ṭha]	[ḍa]	[ḍha]	[ṇa]	[ra]	[ṣa]
Dental	[ta]	[tha]	[da]	[dha]	[na]	[la]	[sa]
Labial	[pa]	[pha]	[ba]	[bha]	[ma]	[va]

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Tai Tham script was added to the Unicode Standard in October, 2009 with the release of version 5.2.

The Unicode block for Tai Tham is U+1A20–U+1AAF:

Supports for Tai Tham Unicode font in Microsoft Windows and Microsoft office are still limited^[32] causing the widespread use of non-Unicode fonts. Fonts published by the Royal Society of Thailand and Chiang Mai University are also non-Unicode due to this problem and to maximize the ability to transcribe and display the ancient Tai Tham text, which frequently contains various special ligatures and symbols not supported by Unicode.^[33][34] Non-Unicode fonts often use a combination of Thai script and Latin Unicode ranges to resolves the incompatibility problem of Unicode Tai Tham in Microsoft office. However, these fonts may encounter a display problem when used on web browsers as the text can be encoded as an unintelligible Thai text instead. In recent years, many Tai Tham Unicode fonts have been developed for web display and communications via smart phones. Google's Noto Sans Tai Tham becomes the default font for Tai Tham on Mac OS and iOS.^[35] However, the current version of this font still fails to display Tai Tham text correctly. The table below gives a list of publicly available Tai Tham fonts.

Note