Indo-European_vocabulary

Indo-European vocabulary

Indo-European vocabulary

Proposed reconstructed word list for the Proto-Indo-European language

The following is a table of many of the most fundamental Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) words and roots, with their cognates in all of the major families of descendants.

Notes

The following conventions are used:

  • Cognates are in general given in the oldest well-documented language of each family, although forms in modern languages are given for families in which the older stages of the languages are poorly documented or do not differ significantly from the modern languages. In addition, modern English forms are given for comparison purposes.
  • Nouns are given in their nominative case, with the genitive case supplied in parentheses when its stem differs from that of the nominative. (For some languages, especially Sanskrit, the basic stem is given in place of the nominative.)
  • Verbs are given in their "dictionary form". The exact form given depends on the specific language:
  • In place of Latin, an Oscan or Umbrian cognate is occasionally given when no corresponding Latin cognate exists. Similarly, a cognate from another Anatolian language (e.g. Luvian, Lycian) may occasionally be given in place of or in addition to Hittite.
  • For Tocharian, both the Tocharian A and Tocharian B cognates are given whenever possible.
  • For the Celtic languages, both Old Irish and Welsh cognates are given when possible. For Welsh, normally the modern form is given, but occasionally the form from Old Welsh is supplied when it is known and displays important features lost in the modern form. A Middle Irish cognate is given when the Old Irish form is unknown, and Gaulish, Cornish and/or Breton (modern) cognates may occasionally be given in place of or in addition to Welsh.
  • For the Baltic languages, Lithuanian (modern) and Old Prussian cognates are given when possible. (Both Lithuanian and Old Prussian are included because Lithuanian often includes information missing in Old Prussian, e.g. due to lack of written accent marks in the latter.) Similarly to the Celtic situation, Old Lithuanian forms may occasionally be given in place of modern Lithuanian; Latvian (modern) may occasionally be given in place of or in addition to Lithuanian.
  • For the Slavic languages, Old Church Slavonic cognates are given when possible. Forms from modern Slavic languages or other Church Slavic dialects may occasionally be given in place of Old Church Slavonic.
  • For English, a modern English cognate is given when it exists, along with the corresponding Old English form; otherwise, only an Old English form is given.
  • For Gothic, a form in another Germanic language (Old Norse; Old High German; or Middle High German) is sometimes given in its place or in addition, when it reveals important features.

Kinship

More information PIE, English ...

People

More information PIE, English ...

Pronouns and particles

More information PIE, English ...

Numbers

See also: Proto-Indo-European numerals and List of numbers in various languages
More information PIE, English ...

Body

More information PIE, English ...

Animals

More information PIE, English ...

Food and farming

More information PIE, English ...

Bodily functions and states

More information PIE, English ...

Mental functions and states

More information PIE, English ...

General conditions and states

More information PIE, English ...

Natural features

More information PIE, English ...

Directions

More information PIE, English ...

Basic adjectives

More information PIE, English ...

Light and color

More information PIE, English ...

Positive qualities

More information PIE, English ...

Construction, fabrication

More information PIE, English ...

Self-motion, rest

More information PIE, English ...

Object motion

More information PIE, English ...

Time

More information PIE, English ...

Ideas and rituals

More information PIE, English ...

Unclassified

More information PIE, English ...

Derivatives

  1. [N 1]
    maternal, maternity, matron, matrimony, matrix, matriculate, material, matter, madeira, alma mater, etc.
  2. [N 2]
    Dēmḗtēr Demeter;
    mētrópolis "metropolis, lit., mother-city"
  3. [N 3]
    paternal, paternity, patron, patronize, pattern, patrimony, patriot, expatriate, patrician, perpetrate, compadre, etc.
  4. [N 4]
    fraternal, fraternity, fraternize, friar,[lower-alpha 2] confrere
  5. [N 5]
    sorority
  6. [N 6]
    nepotism
  7. [N 7]
    avuncular
  8. [N 8]
    human, , humanity, ad hominem, etc
  9. [N 9]
    virile, virtue, triumvir(ate), etc.[lower-alpha 15]
  10. [N 10]
    regal, regalia, regicide, royal, etc.
  11. [N 11]
    corps, corpse, corporal, corporation, incorporate, etc.
  12. [N 12]
    cap, cape, chapeau, capital, chapter, capitulate, decapitate, per capita, kaput, etc.
  13. [N 13]
    language, lingo etc.
  14. [N 14]
    ocular, binoculars, etc.
  15. [N 15]
    core, cordial, record, accord, discord, concord, accordion, misericordia, courage, etc.
  16. [N 16]
    cruel, crude
  17. [N 17]
    tripod, podium, etc.
  18. [N 18]
    manual, manufacture, manuscript, manipulate, manifest, maintain, manage, manumission, emancipate, mandate, demand, commend, countermand, mandatory, masturbate etc.
  19. [N 19]
    pecunious, impecunious
  20. [N 20]
    auspices, auspicious
  21. [N 21]
    lox
  22. [N 22]
    grain, granary, granule, granite, pomegranate, etc.
  23. [N 23]
    agrarian, agriculture, pilgrim, peregrinate, etc.
  24. [N 24]
    promulgate, emulsion, etc.
  25. [N 25]
    molar (tooth)
  26. [N 26]
    immolate
  27. [N 27]
    maul, mallet, malleable
  28. [N 28]
    Spanish 'zumo' via Arabic
  29. [N 29]
    fervent, fervor, fervid, effervescence
  30. [N 30]
    saline, salsa, sauce, salad, sausage (salchicha, saucisse), salami, salary
  31. [N 31]
    semen, seminar, seminary, seminal, disseminate, inseminate, season, sative, etc.
  32. [N 32]
    member, membrane
  33. [N 33]
    "dorm, dormitory, dorter"
  34. [N 34]
    progeny, progenitor
  35. [N 35]
    nee [lower-alpha 49]
  36. [N 36]
    nascent
  37. [N 37]
    native, nativity, etc.
  38. [N 38]
    Spa Navidad "Christmas"
  39. [N 39]
    nature, natural, etc.
  40. [N 40]
    nation, national, etc.
  41. [N 41]
    Natalia, Natalie, Natasha, Noël, etc.
  42. [N 42]
    general, generic, generate, generous, congenital, degenerate, gender, genre, etc.
  43. [N 43]
    gent, gentle, gentleman, gentile, genteel, etc.
  44. [N 44]
    genitive, primogeniture, etc.
  45. [N 45]
    ingenuous, ingenu, ingenue
  46. [N 46]
    ingenious, engine, engineer, gin (instrument, as in cotton gin), etc.
  47. [N 47]
    germ, germinate, germane, etc., but not German
  48. [N 48]
    genitals, genitalia
  49. [N 49]
    genesis, genes, genetic, etc.
  50. [N 50]
    auction, etc.
  51. [N 51]
    author, etc.
  52. [N 52]
    augment, etc.
  53. [N 53]
    augury, inaugurate, etc.
  54. [N 54]
    August, etc.
  55. [N 55]
    auxiliary, etc.
  56. [N 56]
    "audio, audience, obey, obedience, auditorium, etc."
  57. [N 57]
    aesthetic
  58. [N 58]
    memento
  59. [N 59]
    reminisce
  60. [N 60]
    memory
  61. [N 61]
    monster
  62. [N 62]
    mathematics
  63. [N 63]
    "memory, remember, etc."
  64. [N 64]
    "mora, moratory, moratorium"
  65. [N 65]
    "martyr"
  66. [N 66]
    dekko
  67. [N 67]
    aspect, inspect, respect, prospect, perspective, retrospect, despicable, conspicuous, perspicuous, perspicacious, spectacle, spectacular, etc etc.
  68. [N 68]
    species, spice, special, specify, specific
  69. [N 69]
    spectre, spectrum
  70. [N 70]
    speculate
  71. [N 71]
    scope, -scope, -scopy
  72. [N 72]
    bishop, episcopal
  73. [N 73]
    skeptic, skeptical, skepticism
  74. [N 74]
    council, conciliate, etc.
  75. [N 75]
    clamor, claim, exclamation, etc.
  76. [N 76]
    clear, clarify, etc.
  77. [N 77]
    stylus, style (originally same meaning as stylus: a particular form of writing > style)
  78. [N 78]
    humble, humility, exhume, etc
  79. [N 79]
    "incinerate, cinerary, cinerarium"
  80. [N 80]
    "foment, fomentation"
  81. [N 81]
    "fever, febrile"
  82. [N 82]
    "February"
  83. [N 83]
    pollute, pollution
  84. [N 84]
    fort, forte, fortitude, fortification, force, effort, etc
  85. [N 85]
    chernozem, chernukha, Cherno(byl)
  86. [N 86]
     ?Siam
  87. [N 87]
    civic, city, citizen, etc.
  88. [N 88]
    cite, incite, excite, Incitātus (Caligula's horse), resuscitate, solicit, etc.
  89. [N 89]
    site, situation, etc.
  90. [N 90]
    expose, exponent, depose, deponent, oppose, opponent, proponent, posit, position, positive, post, etc.
  91. [N 91]

    impeccable, impeach
  92. [N 92]
    podium, pew
  93. [N 93]
    sequence, second, segue, etc.
  94. [N 94]
    vert-, verse, versus, version, invert, convert, inverse, reverse, controversy, anniversary etc.
  95. [N 95]
    join, joinder, joint, junction, juncture, conjugal, conjugate, conjunct, adjunct, injunction, rejoin, rejoinder, jostle, joust, adjust, etc.
  96. [N 96]
    local, locate, locality, locomotion, allocate, etc.
  97. [N 97]
    epistle, pistle, epistolary, etc.
  98. [N 98]
    sect (or possibly from Lat. sequi, "follow"), -sect, sectile, section, sector, dissect, insect, intersect, resect, transect, etc.
  99. [N 99]
    carnal, carnage, carnation, carnival, carrion, caruncle, carnivorous, charnel, charcuterie, incarnate, etc., Spa carne
  100. [N ..0]
    scrutiny, scrutinize, inscrutable, etc.
  101. [N ..1]
    scruple, scrupulous, etc.
  102. [N ..2]
    cult, culture, cultivate, incult, etc.
  103. [N ..3]
    colony, colonial, etc.
  104. [N ..4]
    collar, accolade, decollate, etc
  105. [N ..5]
    palindrome, palimpsest, palinode
  106. [N ..6]
    telegraph, television, etc.
  107. [N ..7]
    evolve, revolve, involve, involucrum, convolve, devolve, voluble etc.;
  108. [N ..8]
    vale, valley
  109. [N ..9]
    helix, helical, helicopter
  110. [N ..0]
    fruit, fructose
  111. [N ..1]
    eunuch (lit. bed-keeper)
  112. [N ..2]
    hectic
  113. [N ..3]
    scheme, schematic
  114. [N ..4]
    school, scholar, scholastic
  115. [N ..5]
    rude, rudimentary, erudite

Footnotes

  1. Reflexes of the stem in daughter languages also refer to deified beings and deities within their respective mythologies/religions: Old English Mōdraniht ('Night of the Mothers'); Celtic and Germanic Matres and Matronae (Latin for 'Mothers and Matrons'); Latvian Māte ('Mother'); Gaulish Dea Matrona ('Divine Mother Goddess'); Sanskrit Matrikas ('Divine Mothers').
  2. e.g., black friar
  3. Phralipe, or Pralipe, "brotherhood", name of several Gypsy/Romany organizations, including a music band and a literary magazine.
  4. sw- > xw-
  5. kʿoyr *swesōr; kʿeʿ < *swesros; kʿor-kʿ < *swesŏres.
  6. Varias García (2017) pointed out that a tablet from Mycene uses "tu-ka-te", whereas tablets from Knossos, Pylos and Thebes use "ko-wa" (*korwa, later koré 'maiden, girl').[21]
  7. Although this word is attested in Hittite, it is considered a loanword from Luwian. While scholarship recognizes the likelihood of its being the reflex of the root in Anatolian, its appearance in Hittite and Luwian would indicate a different meaning, however.[26][27]
  8. The root could also be found in Anatolian languages with later attestation: Isaurian personal name Τουάτρης Touatris; Pisidian name Δωταρι Dotari.[28] However, Simon Zsolt questions the interpretation of Dotari as a reflex, since this word is attested as a compound in male names.[29]
  9. Other interpretations are "son of the yew" or "son of the boar".[34]
  10. The word is attested in Plate III of the Botorrita plaques. Patrizia de Bernardo Stempel interprets "-SUNOS" as the remnant of the root in the Celtic branch.[22][35]
  11. This is the other possible attestation of the root in the Celtic branch.[36]
  12. As argued by Peyrot and Meng (2021).[42]
  13. cf. divide
  14. bridegome in Middle English, subsequently influenced by groom (archaically "servant, man").
  15. But not virus
  16. These reflexes are suggested by Belarusian scholar Siarhiej Sanko.[51]
  17. See also Thr goni "woman".[52]
  18. See also Phry knaiko, knaikan "woman".[53]
  19. Joseph Vendryes had suggested that compound names with the stem seem to be common around the southeast and the Balkans.[64] However, the stem "is attested ... in Messapic, in Osco-Umbrian, in Venetic, in Gaulish, in Celtiberian, in Brittonic languages, in Welsh, in German and in the Baltic languages",[65] as seen, for instance, in Illyrian Teuta (a Illyrian female ruler); Messapic teuta (community) and Taotor (name of deity); tribal name Teutons.
  20. However, Robert Beekes suggests a non-Indo-European, substrate origin for the stem and its reflexes.[66]
  21. Woudhuizen lists possible reflexes: Phrygian totos, teutous; Mycenaean te-u-ta-(ko-ro).[53] Another reflex appears in Thracian personal name Tautomedes, cited by J. P. Mallory,[69] and Ancient Macedonian (Pelasgian?) general Teutamus.[66]
  22. hēm- < *ām- (with h- after hum- "you (pl.)") < *asm- < *n̥sm-.
  23. OE ēow (acc., dat.) and ēow-ic̣ (acc., with the same -c̣ ending visible in 1st. sg. acc. mēc̣ "me", also modern German mich "me"), likewise Old High German iuwih "you (acc./dat. pl.)" (modern euch), appear to have the same origin as izw- in Gothic izwis "you (acc./dat. pl)", with unexplained loss of -z-. izwis appears to come from stem izw- plus originally genitive -is, where izw- comes ultimately from PIE *us-we with the loss of u- also visible in Avestan and Celtic, followed by the addition of a prothetic i-. (Ringe, 2006)
  24. Cf. Latin ne-que, Gothic ni-h, Hittite ni-kku, Lydian ni-k "and not, nor".
  25. All suggested etymologies of një "one" are highly speculative, at best. This etymology is one of two given by E. Hamp in Indo-European Numerals (Jadranka Gvozdanović, ed., 1992), pp. 903-904; the other is simply from PIE *eni- (or H₂en-), a PIE deictic particle visible in Sanskrit anyá- "the other", OCS onŭ "that one", Lithuanian anàs "that one". Michiel de Vaan, in a review of Demiraj's Sistemi i numerimit, suggests PIE *H₂en-io-no- > pre-Proto-Albanian *ëńán > Proto-Albanian *ńâ > një. M. Huld (Basic Albanian Etymologies, p. 101) attempts to derive një from PIE *sm-iH₂, feminine of *sem "one" and reflected in Ancient Greek mía; this etymology is also tentatively suggested in Don Ringe et al. "IE and Computational Cladistics", p. 75 (Transactions of the Philological Society 100, 2002).
  26. For example, qñnã-tba "twelve" (litt. "ten" plus "two").[73]
  27. See also: Umb peturpursus "quadruped".
  28. Cf. Thr ketri- "four".[76]
  29. See also: Osc pomp- "five".[77]
  30. See also Phry pinke "five".[53]
  31. Built upon osmŭ "eighth" < *H₁ok̂t-mo-.
  32. With nasalization after *septḿ̥ "seven".
  33. There is the possibility that Lycian sñta could mean either "ten" or "(one) hundred".[78][81]
  34. But not kephalḗ!
  35. Possible Anatolian reflex of the root, as posited by Sasseville (2020).[110]
  36. Only in *aíƕatundi "bramble", literally "horse-tooth".
  37. Expected form is *vōs, not *bōs; evidently this is a borrowing from Oscan or Umbrian.
  38. bóu, báu are archaic genitives; later báo, bó.
  39. Celtic river-goddess
  40. In the latter case, a direct parallel to Skt. go·vinda- "cow-finder"
  41. River in Ireland
  42. Proposed by Yakubovich and Sasseville (2018).[124]
  43. Cf. also Phry ἔξις or ἔζις (ezi) "hedgehog".
  44. In ancient Roman tradition, the Avernus was a lake where birds died as they flew near it.
  45. See also Illyrian tribal name Enchele "eel-people".
  46. The name migrated to Eastern Europe,[150] assumed the form "azhdaja" and the meaning "dragon", "dragoness"[151] or "water snake"[152] in Balkanic and Slavic languages.[153]
  47. See also Ovinnik 'a spirit of the barn'.[192]
  48. Lit. drinking implement
  49. Via French né, née
  50. Cf. Sanskrit janitár-, Greek genetḗr, genétōr, Latin genitor "procreator".
  51. Seen in many personal or tribal names: Biuitoni, Biuonia, Dago-bius, etc
  52. This borrowing is found in almost every Slavic language and is said to be "without doubt the most famous Germanic loanword in Slavic" (Pronk-Tiethoff (2013))
  53. Derived by some from *men- "to think"
  54. standard present tense formed using a suppletive root
  55. all Slavic languages
  56. Under the misguided influence of Greek stûlos "pillar"
  57. Cf. Asteria (litt.) "starry one"; Astraeus "god of dusk" (litt. "starry"); Astraea "star-maiden"; Cretan king Asterion "starry".
  58. acc. stā̆rǝm, gen. stārō, pl. nom. staras-ča, stārō, acc. strǝ̄uš, gen. strǝ̄m, dat. stǝrǝbyō.
  59. Tīw < *déywos was the Germanic god of war, but originally was a sky-god and head of the gods, like Zeus.
  60. *déywos > Lat. deus; gen. *deiwī > Lat. dīvī. From each stem a full declension was formed.
  61. According to linguist Vitaly Shevoroshkin, the noun exists in other Anatolian languages: Lycian ziw-; Lydian civ-; Luwian Tiwa-; Palaic Tija-.[123]
  62. Other dialectal variants are Cretan awélios or ābélios; Doric āélios.
  63. Seen in chamomile (from khamaimēlon "earth-apple") and chameleon (from khamailéōn "earth-lion").[190]
  64. It is unclear how the original PIE forms produced the attested daughter-language forms. After the loss of laryngeals, original *péh₂wr̥, ph₂unés would regularly produce *pāwr̥, punés. It is possible that this form was considered too strange-looking, with the result that the u vowel was borrowed from the second stem into the first, yielding *púwr̥, punés. This compressed to *pūr, punés, and this stem set, or its regularized version *pūr, purés, might form the basis of the Umbrian, Greek and Armenian forms. For Germanic, however, something else must be at work. Ringe (2006) suggests that the following sequence of events produced Gothic fōn: Collective péh₂wōr -> ph₂uṓr (cf. Tocharian B puwar) > puōr > Proto-Germanic fuwōr > fwōr > fōr -> fōn (using -n- from the oblique stem), where -> indicates a change due to analogy, while > indicates a regular sound change. His explanation of funins and fuïr is very tentative and complicated. Pokorny's suggestion for Germanic is rather different. He derives fōn from *fwōn, with no further derivation, but probably different from Ringe's. fuïr comes from *puweri, a locative that could be formed from a nominative *púwr̥ or possibly from a stem *pur-. It suffices to say that the processes involved are not well understood.
  65. Februārius mēnsis - Roman month of expiation
  66. Cf. Thracian river name Struma and river-god Strymon; Illyrian toponyms Stravianae and Strevintia; Lith. (dial.) river name Straujà; Old Prussian place-names Strewe, Stromyke and Strowange.[296] Stravianae (or Stravijanu) is tentatively located by scholars near the modern day city of Našice, in east Croatia.[297]
  67. The literal meaning is "place between the rivers".
  68. Scholarly opinion seems to agree that the word must have referred to a large body of water.
  69. Replaced OE sār, compare Ger sehr
  70. *H₁le(n)gʷʰ- and *h₁rewdʰ- are both roots that form Caland-type adjectives. These roots are notable in that they form zero-stem adjectives with certain characteristic suffixes, especially -ro- and -u-, along with -i- in compounds. Other examples are *h₂erǵ- "white" (cf. Greek argós < *argrós "white", Sanskrit ṛjrá- "brilliant", Tocharian B ārkwi "white", Greek argi-kéraunos "with bright lightning") and *dʰewb- "deep" (cf. Lithuanian dubùs "hollow" < *dʰub-u-, Tocharian B tapre "high" < *dʰub-ro-).
  71. contested
  72. Cf. also Thrac arzas "white".[328]
  73. Etymon rudá appears in idiomatic expressions denoting "anger".[338]
  74. Latin etymons galbus ("yellow") and galbinus ("greenish-yellow") are also suggested to derive from this root.[344]
  75. See also: Phr glouros "gold".[345][346]
  76. Not cognate
  77. ibetis uciu andecari biiete - 'drink from here and be nice' - Limé (Aisne) inscrpition
  78. See also Umbrian benust (Latin uenerit) and Oscan kúm-bened (Latin conuentio).
  79. Now compare 'prose' and 'verse'
  80. wagon is a loan-word from Dutch.
  81. Some of these words might instead derive from *sekʷ- "to follow"
  82. Not related to Spanish alquilar
  83. Probably
  84. See also Hesperus "evening star"; Hesperides "daughters of the evening; nymphs of the west".
  85. Attested in the Coligny calendar, written in Gaulish language.
  86. Douglas Q. Adams reads the words as "winter, wintry", although there are other interpretations.[458][459]
  87. Influenced by zǝrǝd "heart".
  88. Range of meanings across the different Slavic languages
  89. as in 'to boot', 'bootless'
  90. exact cognate of Héktōr

Tabular notes

  1. Complex ablauting stem:
    More information Singular, Plural ...
  2. Complex ablauting stem:
    More information Language, Nom ...
  3. Complex ablauting stem:
    More information Language, Nom ...

References

  1. [1]
    Dnghu, pp. 1993-1994.
  2. [2]
    Pokorny, pp. 700-701.
  3. [3]
    Dnghu, p. 2394.
  4. [4]
    Pokorny, p. 829.
  5. [5]
    Mallory & Adams (2006), p. 210.
  6. [6]
    Dnghu, pp. 485-486.
  7. [7]
    Pokorny, pp. 163-164.
  8. [8]
    Mallory & Adams (2006), p. 214.
  9. [9]
    Yūsuke, Sumi (2018). New Express Romani (Gypsy). p. 142.
  10. [10]
    Kenrick, Donald (2007). Historical Dictionary of the Gypsies. Scarecrow Press. pp. 195, 204. ISBN 978-0-8108-5468-0.
  11. [11]
    Zair, Nicholas (2012). The Reflexes of the Proto-Indo-European Laryngeals in Celtic. Brill. p. 110. doi:10.1163/9789004233096. ISBN 978-90-04-22539-8.
  12. [12]
    Campbell, George L. with King, Gareth. Compendium of the World's Languages. Routledge. 2013. p. 86. ISBN 978-0-415-62191-5
  13. [13]
    Dnghu, p. 3027.
  14. [14]
    Pokorny, p. 1051.
  15. [15]
    Witczak, Krzysztof Tomasz (1 December 2015). "Gaulish SUIOREBE 'with two sisters'". Lingua Posnaniensis. 57 (2): 59–62. doi:10.1515/linpo-2015-0011. S2CID 56122374.
  16. [16]
    Kloekhorst, Alwin (2011). "The accentuation of the PIE word for 'daughter'". Accent Matters. pp. 235–243. doi:10.1163/9789401200325_009. ISBN 978-90-420-3332-0.
  17. [17]
    Dnghu, pp. 757-758.
  18. [18]
    Pokorny, p. 277.
  19. [19]
    Mallory & Adams (2006), p. 213.
  20. [20]
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Bibliography

  • Pokorny, Julius (1959). Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch.
  • Dnghu. Proto-Indo-European Etymological Dictionary. (A revised edition of Julius Pokorny's Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch, CCA-GNU)
  • Beekes, Robert (1995). Comparative Indo-European Linguistics. ISBN 1-55619-504-4.
  • Beekes, Robert S. P. (2009). Etymological Dictionary of Greek. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-90-04-17418-4.
  • Mallory, James; Adams, DQ (24 August 2006). The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World (2006 ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-928791-0.
  • Kölligan, Daniel (2018). "The lexicon of Proto-Indo-European". Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. pp. 2229–2279. doi:10.1515/9783110542431-045. ISBN 978-3-11-054243-1. S2CID 134708437.
  • Delamarre, Xavier. Le Vocabulaire Indo-Européen. Paris: Librairie d'Amérique et d'Orient. 1984. ISBN 2-7200-1028-6
  • Delamarre, Xavier (2003). Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise: Une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental. Errance. ISBN 9782877723695.
  • Kloekhorst, Alwin. Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon. Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series 5. Leiden, The Netherlands; Boston, 2008. https://hdl.handle.net/1887/11996
  • Matasovic, Ranko. Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. 2009. ISBN 978-90-04-17336-1
  • Monier-Williams, Monier (1960). A Sanskrit-English. Oxford: Oxford Clarendon.

Further reading

On numerals:

On nature and the passage of time:

On animals:

On kinship and family:

  • Blažek, Václav. "Indo-European *suHnu- 'son' and his relatives". In: Indogermanistik und Linguistik im Dialog. Akten der XIII. Fachtagung der Indogermanischen Gesellschaft von 21. bis 27. September 2008 in Salzburg, hrg. Thomas Krisch & Thomas Lindner. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 2011. pp. 79–89. ISBN 978-3-89500-681-4
  • Cooper, Brian. "The Lexicology and Etymology of Russian Family Relationships". In: Studia Etymologica Cracoviensia Vol. 14. Issue 1. Kraków: 2009. pp. 153–176. ISBN 978-83-233-2758-5
  • Fernández, Esteban Ngomo (2022). "La palabra para 'hija' en indoeuropeo: un análisis comparativo" [THE WORD FOR ‘DAUGHTER’ IN INDO-EUROPEAN: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS]. Revista Española de Lingüística (in Spanish). 52 (1): 169–182. doi:10.31810/RSEL.52.1.5. S2CID 250377644.
  • Friedrich, Paul (January 1966). "Proto-Indo-European Kinship". Ethnology. 5 (1): 1–36. doi:10.2307/3772899. JSTOR 3772899.
  • Galton, Herbert (1957). "The Indo-European Kinship Terminology". Zeitschrift für Ethnologie. 82 (1): 121–138. JSTOR 25840433.
  • Hettrich, Heinrich (1985). "Indo-European Kinship Terminology in linguistics and Anthropology". Anthropological Linguistics. 27 (4): 453–480. JSTOR 30028080.
  • Heltoft, Lars (29 April 2020). "The Malt stone as evidence for a morphological archaism: Reconstructing the Proto-Nordic and Proto-Germanic systems of kinship terms". NOWELE. 73 (1): 4–20. doi:10.1075/nowele.00031.hel. S2CID 219013196.
  • Humphreys, S. C. (2017). "Proto-Indo-European Kinship and Society: Kin Terms". The Journal of Indo-European Studies. 45 (3–4): 373–425. ProQuest 2070902282.
  • Kullanda, Sergey (February 2002). "Indo-European 'Kinship Terms' Revisited". Current Anthropology. 43 (1): 89–111. doi:10.1086/324127. S2CID 224797067.
  • Milanova, Veronika (2020). "Brothers and Many Others: The Concept 'Offspring' and its Semantic Extensions in IndoEuropean Languages". The Journal of Indo-European Studies. 48 (1–2): 189–217. ProQuest 2429828943.
  • Pârvulescu, Adrian (1 January 1989). "Blood and IE. Kinship Terminology". Indogermanische Forschungen. 94 (1): 67–88. doi:10.1515/if-1989-0107. S2CID 171400036.
  • Rau, Jeremy (2011). "Indo-European Kinship Terminology: *ph₂tr-ou̯-/ph₂tr̥-u̯- and its Derivatives". Historische Sprachforschung / Historical Linguistics. 124: 1–25. doi:10.13109/hisp.2011.124.1.1. JSTOR 41553560.
  • Starke, Frank (1987). "Die Vertretungen von uridg. *d h ugh₂tér- "Tochter" in den luwischen Sprachen und ihre Stammbildung". Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung. 100 (2): 243–269. JSTOR 40848875.

On agriculture and produce:

On colors:

On verbs related to action and motion:

On bodily functions:

Look up Category:Proto-Indo-European terms by etymology in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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