Planning

Moses had proposed a World's Fair pavilion for the government of New York state as early as January 1960, four months before he became the president of the World's Fair Corporation.^[8] By late 1960, Moses was drawing up plans for exhibits at the pavilion, including exhibits about tourism, New York state geography, and the New York Power Authority.^[9] The corporation's officials discussed the location of the proposed pavilion for over a year, and they ultimately selected a site known as Block 46 in May 1961.^[10] The site covered 129,392 square feet (12,021 m²)^[11][12] and was chosen specifically because it was slightly larger than Block 45, which was to be occupied by the government of New Jersey.^[10] Negotiations over potential exhibits, including discussions over a potential fashion exhibit, continued through 1961.^[9]

New York's lieutenant governor, Malcolm Wilson, signed a contract with the World's Fair Corporation in February 1962, allowing the government of New York state to sponsor an exhibit at the 1964 World's Fair. At the time, the governments of 30 states, New York City, and Puerto Rico were planning pavilions at the fair, and the New York State Pavilion was to be the largest of these structures.^[13] The pavilion was one of two structures that the New York state government would erect for the World's Fair, along with the New York State Theater in Manhattan.^[13][14] During the pavilion's development, New York governor Nelson Rockefeller sought to divert funds from the project to the New York State Theater, since the pavilion was originally supposed to be temporary.^[15] It was also one of several exhibit spaces in the World's Fair that focused on New York; there were also pavilions for New York City, the Port of New York Authority, and the Long Island Rail Road.^[16]

Five architects participated in an unofficial architectural design competition.^[10] The architect Philip Johnson, who also designed the New York State Theater,^[17] was hired to design the pavilion in mid-1962. Johnson later stated that Rockefeller had personally selected him for the project.^[10][18] The Thompson–Starrett Company received the general contract for construction.^[11][19] At the time, the World's Fair Corporation had already created preliminary plans for structures on Block 46. Although the structures were initially meant to be temporary, Moses and Johnson had agreed to create a permanent theater for the site by June 1962.^[10] Another change to the original plans was the addition of observation towers, since Rockefeller wanted the New York State Pavilion to be the tallest structure in the fair.^[20] Initially, the World's Fair Corporation would not allow any structures higher than 80 feet (24 m) in the fair's federal and state section. After Johnson persisted, the corporation agreed in August 1962 to allow the New York State Pavilion to include taller structures.^[10]

Construction

Details of the New York State Pavilion were announced on October 8, 1962,^[14] when Rockefeller drove a deep foundation into the ground during a groundbreaking ceremony for the pavilion.^[11][19][21] The structure was to contain a Tent of Tomorrow (also known as the County Fair of the Future^[19]) for exhibits and events, a theater called Theaterama, and three observation towers.^[11][14][21] The state government allocated $11 million to the World's Fair, with the expectation that it would be able to earn revenue by selling tickets to the pavilion's restaurants and observation deck.^[22] Officials estimated that the pavilion would have 12 million to 13 million visitors during the World's Fair, which was to last two years.^[23] Revisions to the design continued through early 1963, when the foundations were modified to allow the structures to remain standing for a longer period.^[24]

Fashion firms had asked the state government for permission to stage fashion exhibits in the Tent of Tomorrow in November 1962,^[25] but there was initial uncertainty about whether these companies would use the New York State Pavilion or get their own pavilion.^[26] The state government allowed fashion companies from New York to use the pavilion in 1963,^[27][28] after Wilson asked the New York State Commission on the World's Fair to make space for the fashion exhibits.^[28] Wilson opposed the addition of some other exhibits (such as those themed to parole and correction), saying that he did not want to create a "Madame Tussaud's Waxworks" for attention.^[22] Joseph Love was hired to organize the fashion exhibits in the pavilion. Although Love reached out to 20,000 companies to determine their interest in the pavilion, only 50 companies had responded by the end of 1963.^[29]

Workers began pouring concrete for the observation towers' columns in June 1963, and the layout of the Tent of Tomorrow had been finalized by the middle of that year.^[30] Each column was built atop 50 deep foundations. Workers constructed the columns by pouring concrete around cylindrical forms that measured 12 feet (3.7 m) across and 3 feet (0.91 m) high.^[31] Civil rights groups protested the New York State Pavilion's construction in mid-1963, after a study found that only two of the 68 workers there were African Americans,^[32][33] and they sued in an attempt to halt construction.^[34] In October 1963, Johnson hired 10 avant-garde artists to create artwork for the Theaterama;^[35] the Hudson Valley Art Association characterized the art as "at best a farce".^[36] Simultaneously, the cable suspension roof of the Tent of Tomorrow was constructed at ground level,^[12][37] and workers began installing the roof panels before the roof was raised.^[38] The suspension roof was raised to the top of the tent's columns at the end of October,^[37][39] using jacks that lifted the roof 2.5 feet (0.76 m) at a time.^[38][39]

The flags of New York state and the U.S. were hoisted to the top of the highest observation tower at a ceremony in December 1963.^[40] The New York State Council on the Arts also announced plans for two art exhibits at the pavilion, one during each of the World's Fair's two operating seasons.^[41] By January 1964, the pavilion's predicted final cost had increased to $13.8 million.^[42] The New York State Legislature was reluctant to allocate a $4.6 million appropriation to complete the pavilion,^[42] but eventually granted the appropriation.^[43] The cost increases prompted an investigation from Louis J. Lefkowitz, the state's attorney general, who looked into the records of several hundred subcontractors.^[44]

1964 season

Moses and Rockefeller formally opened the World's Fair on April 23, 1964.^[53][54] In his dedication speech, Rockefeller indicated that the pavilion might become a permanent fixture of the park;^[54][55] Moses also wanted the New York State and U.S. pavilions to be preserved.^[56][57] Hundreds of civil rights activists organized a sit-in at the pavilion during the opening ceremony and were arrested.^[58][59] During the 1964 season, the New York State Pavilion displayed a visual-art exhibit called The River: People and Places,^[41][60] with 50 works that represented the state's early history or early artists.^[61][46] More than 500 talent show performances were scheduled at the pavilion during the 1964 season. Many of these performances were grouped according to geographic location or cultural background, so that acts with a similar theme were performed on the same day.^[62] Thirteen fashion magazines staged shows on the Tent of Tomorrow's ramp.^[63]

At the midpoint of the 1964 season that July, The New York Times reported that the New York State Pavilion was one of the fair's most popular exhibits.^[64] Admission to the Theaterama cost 25 cents each,^[50][46] while admission to the observation towers cost 50 cents for adults and 25 cents for children.^[65][66] In the Theaterama's first eight weeks of operation, 200,000 people paid to watch the short film there.^[50] By that August, nearly 1.4 million people had ridden the observation towers' elevators.^[65] The pavilion closed for the season on October 18, 1964.^[67] According to a National Park Service report, toward the end of the 1964 season, nearly one-quarter of all visitors to the World's Fair were recorded as having visited the New York State Pavilion, or about 55,000 people daily. The exhibit was reportedly the World's Fair's third-most-popular pavilion, which also made it a frequent location for civil rights protests.^[46]

1965 season

In early 1965, Moses wrote to the Mayor's Committee on the Future of Flushing Meadow, asking them to retain the New York State Pavilion after the World's Fair ended; most of the fair's other structures were to be demolished.^[68][69] Moses proposed converting the pavilion to a concert venue and recreational facility.^[68] That March, the New York State Comptroller's office launched an investigation into the construction costs of the pavilion.^[70] Comptroller Arthur Levitt ultimately determined that the pavilion had cost $12,292,225 to erect, slightly lower than the predicted final cost of about $12.4 million but much higher than the original budget of $3.825 million.^[71]

The pavilion itself reopened at the beginning of the World's Fair's second season on April 21, 1965.^[72] As with the preceding season, the New York State Pavilion hosted live entertainment throughout the day.^[73] An art exhibit called The City: People and Places was displayed at the New York State Pavilion for the 1965 season;^[41][74] it consisted of 50 pieces created between 1880 and 1958.^[75] Absent during the 1965 season were several companies that had hosted fashion shows at the pavilion during the 1964 season. Additionally, though the New York state government had predicted that the pavilion's Wing of Fashion would attract thousands of fashion companies, only 132 firms had signed up for space during the 1965 season.^[76]

The mayor's committee recommended in mid-1965 that the New York State Pavilion be demolished after the fair,^[57][77] even though Moses and the state government supported its preservation.^[78] Moses proposed restoring the pavilion after the fair as part of a $6.3 million program to renovate the park,^[79] and the Queens Federation of Civic Council also launched a fundraiser to preserve the structure.^[80] The fair's second and final season ended on October 18, 1965.^[81] The World's Fair Corporation mandated that most exhibition buildings in Flushing Meadows Park be demolished within 90 days of the fair's closure,^[82] but city officials were negotiating to preserve the New York State and U.S. pavilions.^[83] As such, the demolition contracts for the pavilions were postponed.^[83] In December 1965, the New York City Board of Estimate voted to preserve the New York State Pavilion, and the state government agreed to spend $750,000 upgrading the pavilion to meet New York City building codes.^[84] Johnson later recalled that the pavilion was preserved largely because of the high cost of demolition.^[85]

Reopening of Theaterama and Tent of Tomorrow

The Board of Estimate voted to allow Joseph Kutrzeba's theatrical group, Queens Playhouse, to use the Theaterama in December 1967,^[92] and NYC Parks leased the Theaterama to Queens Playhouse the next month.^[93] NYC Parks also promised to fund up to $200,000 in renovations,^[93] and Philip Johnson and theater consultant Peter Donald Howard were hired to convert the Theaterama into a 500-seat performing-arts venue.^[94] The modifications included new lighting and a semi-thrust stage,^[95] as well as removal of some of the original decor.^[96] Due to difficulties in raising funds,^[97] the Queens Playhouse did not move into the Theaterama until October 1972.^[98] During the 1970s, several groups took turns operating the Theaterama.^[99]

A Newsday reporter wrote in early 1969 that the observation towers and the Tent of Tomorrow had been locked.^[100] though the tent was being used for concerts by the middle of 1969.^[101] Led Zeppelin and the Grateful Dead hosted rock concerts in the tent,^[102] and the music promoter Bill Graham also booked pop concerts there.^[103] The Tent of Tomorrow was temporarily closed in 1970 due to concerns that the plastic roof was decaying.^[104] In early 1972, NYC Parks and the New York City Department of Cultural Affairs announced that they would lease the Tent of Tomorrow to a roller-rink operator,^[105] and a local company offered to pay $6 million to renovate the tent into a roller rink.^[106] Queens Community Board 4 threatened to request an injunction to prevent the tent from being leased until public hearings were hosted.^[105] David Oats and Eric Ierardi, the leaders of the Friends of Flushing Meadows group, also circulated a petition to save the pavilion, obtaining 20,000 signatures by that February.^[106]

The Tent of Tomorrow's roller rink opened in March 1972^[107][108] and was operating at capacity within three months.^[107] People skated directly above the tent's terrazzo floor, prompting concerns that it would deteriorate,^[109][110] and parts of the floor were also covered with cement to accommodate roller skaters.^[111] To limit damage to the floor, the rink's operators, Robert and Chris Jelin, placed a layer of plastic above the floor, and they only used skates with plastic and wooden wheels.^[110] Because the rink was an open-air facility, it had to close during the winters. By August, there were calls to convert the rink into a year-round facility, although the rink's operators estimated that the city would have to spend as much as $50,000 to build a temporary bubble over the rink.^[110] Queens Playhouse also stored its equipment and furniture in the pavilion.^[112] The observation towers were still unused.^[108] In advance of the United States Bicentennial, in 1973, the Queens Bicentennial Commission proposed converting the New York State Pavilion into a venue for exhibits, performances, and events.^[113]

1970s and 1980s changes

The New York City government abruptly closed the Tent of Tomorrow and canceled Robert Jelin's lease in July 1974 after finding severe damage to the roof.^[114] Jelin proposed spending $50,000 to dismantle the roof.^[115] The city government approved the rink's reopening on the condition that the roof be removed first,^[116] and the Tent of Tomorrow's roof panels were removed in the late 1970s.^[117][118] This left the Queens Playhouse as the pavilion's only occupant.^[118] Another rink ultimately opened in 1978 at the World's Fair's former Post Office building.^[119] Drums of hazardous waste from the Post Office building were relocated to the New York State Pavilion,^[120] where they remained until mid-1979.^[121]

By the late 1970s, Oats was petitioning state officials to find a company to restore the Tent of Tomorrow's decaying map.^[122] According to Oats, the film producer Sidney Lumet had offered to repair the pavilion when he was shooting his 1978 film The Wiz there. The New York City government rejected Lumet's offer, telling him to restore the pavilion as he found it.^[123] The Theater in the Park was renovated for $150,000 between 1981 and 1982,^[124] and the rest of the pavilion was cleaned and repaired during early 1983.^[125] The pavilion reopened as a venue for children's entertainment in mid-1983.^[126] The city also asked the state and federal governments for money to further renovate the pavilion.^[127] During the 1980s, Hoving wanted to raze the tent and towers.^[128] A local architect proposed converting the tent into a theater in the round,^[128] while another proposal called for the pavilion to be renovated into a branch of the National Museum of the American Indian.^[129]

The Theater in the Park closed in 1985 and stood abandoned for several years.^[130][131] During the same decade, the tent was closed to the public altogether due to safety concerns.^[130] The Queens Theatre in the Park began performing within the Theaterama in 1989.^[99][132] By then, the theater needed extensive structural repairs;^[131][133] the roof had a hole in it,^[134][135] and the walls were covered in graffiti.^[135] The Queens Theatre's director also said at the time that the Theaterama building was used by squatters and that it was missing doors.^[132] Although people had submitted various proposals to reopen the towers, all of these plans were canceled due to the high cost of restoration.^[85][136] The map in the Tent of Tomorrow was also deteriorating.^[136]

2014–2016: Repainting and further restoration proposals

Melinda Katz, who became Queens' borough president in 2014, supported the New York State Pavilion's restoration^[102] and allocated some funds to the renovation that year.^[174] Renewed interest was shown in the pavilion's restoration in early 2014.^[175][176] At the time, there were still proposals to demolish the building.^[176] For the 50th anniversary of the World's Fair on April 22, 2014, the long-shuttered New York State Pavilion was opened to the public for three hours, and the National Trust for Historic Preservation named the pavilion as one of its National Treasures.^[177][178] Over 5,000 people attended the event.^[178] The following month, the University of Central Florida (UCF) and architectural archive website CyArk began raising $15,000 to fund a 3D laser scan of the pavilion;^[179] UCF began scanning the pavilion that June.^[180] The city government also gave about $5.8 million for restoration that month,^[181] and the New York Mets also donated some money to the preservation effort.^[182] The Tent of Tomorrow's terrazzo map was damaged that July by arsonists.^[183]

In May 2015, the New York Structural Steel Painting Contractors Association, NYC Parks, and members of the International Union of Painters and Allied Trades, announced that they would repaint Tent of Tomorrow at no cost to the city.^[184] Following an examination of paint chips, the color "American Cheese Yellow" was selected as the best match for the original color. The majority of the labor was done by union trainees, and contractors donated $3 million worth of materials.^[185] Workers spent over 8,000 man-hours on the repainting, which required 1,600 U.S. gallons (6,100 L) of paint.^[186][187] All work was completed by August 2015.^[188] By that October, the city was awarding a design contract for the pavilion's structural stabilization and electrical upgrades.^[186]

People for the Pavilion and the National Trust for Historic Preservation launched an international ideas competition for the pavilion in March 2016.^[189] The competition garnered 250 submissions, which ranged from facetious proposals to those submitted by professional architects.^[190][191] The winning design called for the structures to become a hanging garden; this proposal, and three others, were displayed at the nearby Queens Museum.^[192] Two proposed designs for the New York State Pavilion's restoration won New York City's 2018 Annual Awards for Excellence in Design.^[193]

2017–present: Renovation

The city announced in May 2017 that it would spend $14.25 million on the New York State Pavilion.^[194][195] Most of the funding came from Katz and from Mayor Bill de Blasio, who each gave $6.45 million, while the other $800,000 was from New York City Council funds.^[194][196] The project was to include stabilization, waterproofing, electrical upgrades, and new lighting.^[195] In addition, as part of the Cities Project, Heineken organized an Indiegogo fundraiser, seeking to raise $15,000 to restore the Tent of Tomorrow's terrazzo floor.^[197] The fundraiser ultimately raised $40,000.^[198] Meanwhile, the city government began looking for a contractor to restore the pavilion in early 2018.^[199] The city had trouble hiring a contractor; by July, only two companies had submitted bids for the restoration of the pavilion.^[130][198] That December, the Federal Emergency Management Agency provided $16.5 million to fix damage that had been caused in 2012 by Hurricane Sandy.^[200]

The city government announced in September 2019 that it would began renovating the three towers and the Tent of Tomorrow.^{[174][196][201]} At the time, the design phase was supposed to be completed in early 2020;^[201] work on the project started in November 2019.^[202] Jan Hird Pokorny Associates designed the renovation, while the engineering firm Silman was the main engineer.^[203] As part of the project, the original electrical wiring was replaced to accommodate a mobile command center for the New York City Police Department.^[204] The suspension cables in the Tent of Tomorrow, the drainage system, and the floor of the pavilion were also replaced.^[174] In addition, the lighting was restored, the stairs in the towers were renovated, and the concrete was replaced.^[174][204] Originally, the work was supposed to finish in early 2021.^[174][204] The first phase of the project was not completed until April 2023.^[204][205]

The Tent of Tomorrow and the towers were illuminated at night starting in 2023, when the first phase of the restoration was finished.^[204][205] The New York Landmarks Conservancy gave its Lucy G. Moses Preservation Award to the first phase of the restoration.^[206] By that October, workers had begun repairing the towers as part of a second phase of the renovation, which was planned to be completed in late 2025.^[207]

Main level and mezzanine

The main floor of the tent had a large-scale Texaco highway map of New York state, made of 567 terrazzo panels.^[221][45] Each panel weighed 400 pounds (180 kg). The panels covered a total area of 9,000 square feet (840 m²),^[45] and the map had dimensions of 130 by 166 feet (40 by 51 m).^[149][222] The map faced east.^[223] The map contained letters denoting various towns and cities, which ranged in size from 2 to 12 inches (51 to 305 mm) based on how large the municipality was. There were also motifs of stars, which measured 5 inches (130 mm) across and were made by Texaco.^[111] Following severe damage due to neglect and vandalism,^[149] the original terrazzo was replaced with a layer of methacrylate starting in 2019.^[174] A small number of the original terrazzo tiles have been preserved.^[222] Several small planters were also placed around the map.^[223]

A mezzanine surrounds the main floor.^[45][12] The mezzanine has an asphalt floor, blue spherical lamps, steel railings along its inner and outer perimeters. Stairs lead up to the mezzanine from the western and eastern sides of the main floor, and there is a third staircase and an escalator from the northern entrance.^[224] There are no stairs leading from the mezzanine to outside the Tent of Tomorrow.^[220]

The wall around the main floor, below the mezzanine level, was composed of red and white panels made of steel or canvas, although they have since been replaced with concrete blocks. There were originally also exhibit spaces under the mezzanine. At the main level, there are entrances underneath the mezzanine from the north, west, and east; all of these are closed off.^[224] In the early 1990s, a 125-seat rehearsal room for the Queens Theatre was added within part of the former exhibit space.^[134][144]

Cable roof

The columns at the tent's exterior support a cable suspension roof weighing 2,000 short tons (1,800 long tons; 1,800 metric tons).^[37] Designed by Zetlin, the cable roof was based on a similar roof at the Utica Municipal Auditorium.^[39] The roof was intended to eliminate the need for internal columns while remaining stable in high winds,^[39][219] and it was also much lighter than comparable roofs, at 9 pounds per square foot (44 kg/m²; 0.43 kPa).^[219] The roof is 50,000 square feet (4,600 m²)^[204][12] or 55,000 square feet (5,100 m²),^[11][19] and, at the time of construction, was described as the largest cable suspension roof in the world.^[11] When the pavilion was erected, cable-suspended roofs could not be built in other parts of New York City, but the World's Fair was exempt from New York City building code.^[225] The city's building code was changed in the mid-1960s, allowing the pavilion to retain its roof, as well as new cable-suspended roofs elsewhere in the city.^[226]

The cable roof consists of 48 pairs of cables.^[31][219] Each cable measures 2.5 inches (6.4 cm) thick.^[219] The cables support a tension ring at the center, which originally had a plastic dome.^[31][227] Near the outer edge of the roof are two elliptical girders; the outer girder is thicker than the inner girder.^[223] The outer girder contains web plates^[31] shaped like battle axes, onto which the ends of the cables are mounted.^[223][227] A pair of cables is mounted to each web plate, with one cable each connected to the top and bottom, and there are smaller vertical stringers connecting the top and bottom of each pair of cables. The outer girders are connected to the reinforced-concrete columns by steel brackets.^[227]

The entire roof was covered by multicolored translucent plastic panels,^[11][39] which were fastened to the cables.^[228] The plastic panels were manufactured in one shade of blue and three shades of red.^[227] In total, there were 1,400^[228] or 1,500 panels.^[38] There were also 800 spotlights mounted above the panels.^[38]

Exterior

The theater building's facade originally contained rectangular openings at ground level, which have been variously infilled with masonry or glass bricks. The exterior was originally wainscoted with steel beams.^[236] There were three doorways to the building on the western facade.^[230] Between the window openings were medallions with an outline of New York state's borders. Above the medallions were yellow-and-white lamps, some of which still exist in the 21st century. To the southeast was a brick-paved terrace, accessed by a concrete stairway that descended to a lower-level gallery.^[237]

On the upper stories are setbacks around the perimeter of the structure, which double as service walkways.^[237] The Theaterama was originally topped by a wooden dome.^[143][230] Globe-shaped blue lamps were placed around the dome as well.^[237] The wooden dome was covered with an aluminum dome in the early 1990s,^[143] upon which the blue globe-shaped lamps were removed.^[237]

After the Theaterama was converted into a venue for the Queens Theatre, three structures were added to the original cylindrical massing during the early 1990s and late 2000s.^[237] A lobby with a glass-brick facade was built in the 1990s renovation.^[140][143] It is accessed by a doorway to the northwest, which is flanked by a pair of concrete pylons.^[143][237] The pylons flank a segmental arch, and there are lamps with metal tiers at the top of each pylon.^[237] Another cylindrical annex was built in the 2000s by the firm of Caples Jefferson.^[153][237] This annex, known as the "nebula",^[238] is located northwest of the relocated main entrance and contains a flat roof, as well as a glass facade with a diagonal ramp-shaped structure around it.^[237][238] There are also a pair of two-story structures to the north, which have a concrete facade. These structures contain offices and performance spaces. The larger structure is to the east and contains a terrace on its western facade, as well as sash windows.^[237]

Interior

The modern theater's entrance is through the "nebula" structure. The nebula contains a reception space with a curved ceiling (which is painted yellow with red edges) and a skylight.^[238] There are windows around the reception area, which overlook the other pavilion structures.^[147][238] The nebula also includes a 75-seat cabaret room,^[147] a catering space, and back of house functions.^[238] Within the original structure, a circulation corridor runs between the facade and the "inner drum". The original entrance to the theater's main auditorium, a red oak door, is still extant. There are two mezzanine levels with walls made of concrete masonry units and plain concrete. On the second story is a projection booth for the main auditorium. When the theater was built, steep staircases led from the eastern side of the ground-level corridor to the mezzanines.^[220]

The inner drum of the theater contains the main auditorium,^[220] officially known as the Claire Shulman Playhouse since 2002.^[154][247] During the 1964 World's Fair, the auditorium was used to display 360-degree films,^[220][221] and there were wooden battens on the wall, which were intended to help with navigation within the auditorium.^[220] Following a 1972 renovation by Peter Howard,^[96][248] the main auditorium was converted into a 500-seat venue with a partial thrust stage.^[95][248] The seating area was reconfigured into 14 rows.^[248] The existing seats were replaced in 1993 with red velvet seats,^[135] salvaged from a former Loews cinema in Manhattan.^[144] After Caples Jefferson renovated the theater in 2009, the main auditorium was expanded to 600 seats.^[238] The modern main auditorium has a catwalk, acoustic wall panels, and raked seating. Parts of the inner drum wall have been removed to accommodate the stage.^[220]

The theater's lower level had exhibition space for visual art, as well as service rooms, during the World's Fair. The exhibit space had a coffered ceiling and wall partitions, parts of which are still extant in the 21st century.^[237] Offices, rehearsal space, and offices were built below the auditorium in the 1972 renovation;^[248] the office space was located in the southeastern portion of the lower level.^[234] Part of the lower-level space became a 100-seat lower auditorium for experimental theatre in 1993.^{[142][144][135]} The lower auditorium was expanded to 125 seats following the 2009 renovation,^[238] and an elevator to the northeast was added around the same time.^[234]